خلاصة:
environmental archaeology, as an interdisciplinary approach, examines the complex interactions between human societies and their environment throughout history. this study, focusing on the qom plain, analyzes various methods such as geomorphological analysis, bioarchaeological remains, soil and sediment analysis, and climate data to evaluate how past ecosystems can be reconstructed. the main aim of this research is to investigate the impact of environmental changes on settlement patterns and subsistence strategies of ancient communities in the qom plain. by employing advanced techniques such as remote sensing (gis and lidar), geophysical surveys, and bioarchaeological studies, this research reconstructs ancient landscapes and analyzes the impact of human activities on ecological changes. the findings suggest that climatic changes, including droughts and rainfall fluctuations, directly influenced settlement patterns and subsistence strategies of past communities. additionally, the development of water management systems, such as qanats, and sustainable agricultural techniques played a crucial role in the survival of ancient communities in the region. this study highlights the importance of interdisciplinary research in understanding the interactions between humans and their environment and offers solutions for sustainable resource management and the preservation of cultural heritage. the results of this study contribute not only to the understanding of historical and human developments but also provide practical insights for addressing contemporary environmental challenges.
introduction
environmental archaeology is an interdisciplinary branch of archaeology that examines the relationship between human societies and the environment in past periods (campbell, 2018; wilkinson & stevens, 2003). this field uses various geological, biological, and paleoclimatic data to reconstruct past environments and analyze the interactions between humans and nature (reitz et al., 2008). given the environmental changes throughout history, human societies have always been influenced by these transformations. climatic changes and geological events have directly impacted lifestyle, economy, and the geographical distribution of societies (reitz & shackley, 2012). archaeological evidence shows that climatic changes have played a decisive role in migration, settlement patterns, and human adaptation strategies (hudson et al., 2012).
scientific methods in environmental archaeology include soil and sediment analysis, study of faunal and floral remains, and remote sensing data analysis (barham & macphail, 2016; niknami & chaychi amirkhiz, 2008; howey et al., 2020). these methods help to better understand the use of natural resources, agricultural development, and environmental management practices of ancient societies (mcclatchie, 2020). additionally, modern techniques such as ancient dna analysis and stable isotopes have provided new insights into human diet and migration patterns (de vareilles et al., 2021).
environmental archaeological studies not only analyze tangible environmental remains in archaeological sites but also examine climatic, geomorphological, and ecological factors and their role in the cultural and social development of human societies (wilkinson & stevens, 2003). this scientific field helps us better understand the connection between ecosystem changes and cultural dynamics. for example, changes in rainfall and temperature patterns can affect agricultural systems and food supply, leading to the formation of new social structures (haldon et al., 2018).
the qom plain, as an example of an important region in environmental archaeological studies, has contributed to the understanding of environmental and settlement dynamics of past societies. geomorphological studies and satellite data indicate that this region has been influenced by multiple climatic changes, and settlement patterns have undergone transformations (masoumi et al., 2021). in this area, climatic changes, including persistent droughts, have directly impacted the livelihoods of past societies and, in some cases, caused severe reductions in water resources and population displacement (see chaychi & shaikh baikloo, 2020; kaboli, 1999).
the aim of this paper is to analyze the application of environmental archaeological methods in identifying past ecosystem changes and their consequences for human societies. the environmental challenges of today share many similarities with those of past periods. therefore, environmental archaeological studies can provide solutions for managing natural resources, preserving cultural heritage, and adapting to climatic changes.
methodology
this research, using interdisciplinary methods in environmental archaeology, investigates human-environment interactions, specifically in the qom plain. this methodology, which combines traditional and modern techniques, enables a more comprehensive understanding of human behavior based on climatic and environmental conditions in the study area and contributes to providing solutions for sustainable resource management and cultural heritage preservation. the research process includes the following steps: (1) collecting and reviewing previous studies in the field of environmental archaeology, focusing on the methods and techniques used to analyze human-environment interactions. (2) utilizing library resources related to the qom plain and similar regions. (3) reviewing environmental archaeological study methods, including soil and sediment analysis, study of biological remains (plant and animal), and analysis of climatic data. (4) referencing advanced techniques such as remote sensing (gis and lidar) and geophysical analysis used in environmental archaeological studies to identify archaeological sites and analyze environmental changes. (5) investigating methods applicable to environmental archaeological studies in the qom plain, such as paleoclimatology analysis, ancient sediment and soil studies, and archaeological botany and zooarchaeology studies. (6) proposing new methods and approaches for future studies in environmental archaeology, with an emphasis on using advanced technologies and interdisciplinary analyses. (7) highlighting the importance of integrating environmental, archaeological, and paleoclimatic data to better understand human-environment interactions in the past.
discussion
environmental archaeology of qom plain
the qom plain is considered one of the most important cultural and historical regions of central iran, where numerous archaeological evidence from different periods has been found. this area, located on the edge of the central iranian desert, has been influenced by specific climatic and geographical conditions that played a significant role in shaping human settlement patterns and lifestyles. geological studies show that climatic changes and geomorphological processes have greatly impacted demographic changes and settlement patterns in this region. furthermore, natural resources such as groundwater and seasonal rivers like qomroud and qarachay have played a key role in attracting human societies from prehistoric to historical periods (saatsaz & rezaie, 2021; gholikandi et al., 2013). environmental archaeology in the qom plain uses data from paleoclimatology, sedimentary studies, and cultural material analysis to reconstruct ancient landscapes. advanced techniques such as remote sensing (gis and lidar) and geophysical analyses have enabled archaeologists to explore the connection between environmental changes and human behaviors (lavery, 2023; chase et al., 2013, 2017; simbolon & comer, 2023; hadjimitsis et al., 2013).
geographical location and environmental characteristics of the qom plain
the qom plain is located in northern central iran and the western part of the central desert. it is bordered by tehran to the north, the central province and kashan to the south, the salt lake to the east, and the central mountains to the west. the region has an elevation ranging from 900 to 1500 meters above sea level and includes seasonal rivers and salt lakes such as hoz-e-soltan and the qom desert. the climate of qom is semi-arid, with annual precipitation less than 165 millimeters, most of which occurs in the colder seasons. temperature fluctuations in the region are severe, affecting the patterns of life and livelihoods of ancient humans (shaterian, 2013: 271).
this region has widespread evaporative and alluvial deposits that formed during the quaternary period (habibi et al., 2021). paleoclimatic studies show that during different holocene periods, several environmental changes occurred in the qom plain. for example, during the mid-holocene, increased moisture led to the expansion of human settlements, while in the late holocene, repeated droughts led to changes in settlement patterns (schmidt et al., 2011). additionally, land subsidence in the region is a major contemporary issue that has been exacerbated by the excessive extraction of groundwater resources and has had a direct impact on the environmental sustainability of the area (masoumi et al., 2021). due to its unique geographical position and proximity to water resources, this region has always served as an important passageway in the communication routes of the central iranian plateau. archaeological evidence shows that the area hosted human settlements from the neolithic to historical periods, benefiting from its natural resources (kabli, 1999; sarlak, 2010).
environment and natural resources
the qom plain has a variety of natural resources that played a fundamental role in the settlement of ancient communities. the water resources of this region included seasonal rivers like qarachay, qomroud, the salt lake, and hoz-e-soltan, which were valuable resources for drinking water and agriculture in the past (yousefi et al., 2012). however, climatic changes and natural processes such as land subsidence and increasing soil salinity have gradually had negative effects on these resources (masoumi et al., 2021). paleobiological studies and environmental data analysis in the qom plain show that natural and climatic changes have had a profound impact on the settlement and livelihoods of human societies (kabli, 1999). these findings highlight the importance of managing natural resources in arid and semi-arid regions like qom.
settlement distribution patterns
archaeological analyses using techniques such as remote sensing and geographic information systems (gis) have shown that the distribution of archaeological sites in the qom plain is influenced by geographical factors such as proximity to water sources and fertile lands (niknami et al., 2009). these studies show that ancient communities followed specific patterns in their settlements and mostly established them near water routes and alluvial plains (li, 2024; deng et al., 2010). by examining settlement distribution maps, it has been found that the focus of settlements shifted to specific areas in different periods. for instance, during the neolithic era, most sites were concentrated near water sources, whereas in the parthian and sassanid periods, with advances in agricultural knowledge and water management, settlements expanded to wider areas. spatial pattern analysis using methods like kernel density and point pattern analysis has shown that the distribution of archaeological sites in some areas was clustered, indicating a concentration of human activities in those locations (kempf & günther, 2023; zhu et al., 2021).
in addition to natural factors, political and economic factors have also influenced settlement patterns. administrative and economic centers in different periods played a significant role in shaping settlement patterns. for example, during the achaemenid and sassanid periods, urban centers were established in areas with access to trade routes and natural resources, indicating the role of economy and politics in the spatial distribution of settlements (gholikandi et al., 2013; altaweel, 2013).
overall, the study of settlement distribution patterns in the qom plain shows that geographical, climatic, economic, and political factors all played a role in determining the locations of human settlements in different historical periods. integrating archaeological data with modern remote sensing methods provides a better understanding of past settlement trends, which can also be useful in cultural heritage conservation and historical resource management studies (elfadaly et al., 2017; moise et al., 2021).
climatic changes and their impact on ancient societies
paleoclimatological research shows that the qom plain has been influenced by multiple climatic changes over thousands of years. geological and sedimentary data indicate that during the early holocene, the region experienced drier conditions, but during the mid-holocene, moisture levels increased, leading to the expansion of human settlements (shaikh baikloo islam & chaychi amirkhiz, 2020). climatic changes profoundly impacted the livelihoods of ancient communities, leading to migration, changes in agricultural practices, and water resource management (shaikh baikloo islam et al., 2020). evidence from soil and sediment analysis shows that climatic changes intensified erosion processes and caused shifts in settlement patterns (shaikh baikloo islam et al., 2023). during certain periods, human communities had to relocate due to the reduction of water resources and the increase in desertification. conversely, in periods with increased rainfall, evidence of agricultural development and societal growth can be observed (reitz & shackley, 2012). for example, kaboli (1999) in his research and excavations in the qomroud basin, based on environmental sedimentology, revealed floods caused by the overflow of the qomroud river, which led to population displacement and the absence of long-term settlement in part of the area.
environmental archaeology plays a key role in identifying strategies of past societies in dealing with climatic changes. studies suggest that some civilizations, using water management techniques such as qanats and small dams, were able to adapt to climatic changes (kaptijn, 2018). these findings can help understand how modern societies may adapt to environmental changes. in general, climatic changes in the qom plain are recognized as a key factor in the historical transformation of the region. analyzing paleobiological and sedimentary data enables us to examine past impacts and use them for better understanding of the future (caseldine & turney, 2010). paleoclimatological studies in various regions of iran, including those conducted on the katleh-khur cave in zanjan (andrews et al., 2020) and the neor lake in ardabil (sharifi et al., 2015), show that climatic changes in the holocene had significant effects on ancient societies, especially in northern central iran. these studies emphasize that temperature fluctuations and changes in rainfall during the holocene led to environmental instability, which directly impacted the distribution and density of human settlements. for example, the 4.2 ka bp dry event (2200 - 1900 bc) and 3.2 ka bp dry event (1250 - 950 bc) placed immense pressure on societies, leading to cultural decline and changes in settlement patterns (shaikh baikloo islam, 2020). in the qom plain, there is also evidence of flood events in the 4th millennium bc, indicating the impact of climatic changes on human societies (chaychi amirkhiz & shaikh baikloo islam, 2020). these climatic changes led to the adoption of adaptation strategies such as relocating settlements and developing innovative irrigation systems.
archaeological-paleoclimatological studies in northern central iran have shown that during the 3rd and 2nd millennia bc, the inhabitants of the region, due to frequent drought events, shifted their subsistence system from sedentary farming to pastoralism and hunting to adapt to climatic and environmental conditions (shaikh baikloo & chaychi, 2020).
incorporating these climatic data into environmental archaeology studies in the qom plain allows for a more precise analysis of the relationships between environmental changes and settlement dynamics. the existing data show that during certain periods in history, increased biodiversity and improved climatic conditions enabled wider settlements in central iran, while sudden climatic changes had adverse effects on the sustainability of these societies. these insights help us better understand how environmental changes influenced human societies and their adaptation strategies.
irrigation systems and water management: one of the most important achievements of ancient societies in the qom plain was the development of water management systems. qanats, as a significant innovation, enabled sustainable use of water in dry regions. these systems, which extend for thousands of kilometers, transported groundwater from mountainous areas to agricultural lands, minimizing evaporation and water pollution (boustani, 2008). in addition to qanats, ancient communities also used irrigation canals and water mills, which helped develop agriculture and the growth of civilizations (gholikandi et al., 2013).
agriculture in the qom plain heavily relied on qanat irrigation systems. these systems enabled the cultivation of various crops in semi-arid environments and demonstrated the ancient communities' understanding of local ecological capacities (jomehpour, 2009). traditional crops like barley and wheat were integrated into agricultural practices, creating a need for new soil and water management strategies (li et al., 2022). however, qanat systems today face challenges, and researchers suggest that with the help of modern technology, these ancient water extraction methods could be revitalized (taghavi-jeloudar et al., 2013).
climate-responsive architecture: the hot and dry climate of the qom plain has influenced traditional architectural designs. ancient societies were able to achieve thermal comfort in harsh climatic conditions by using thick walls, small windows, and central courtyards (hejazi, 2007). the qajar-era houses in qom are an example of sustainable architectural principles that show harmony with the local climate (saedi & aali, 2021). these climate-sensitive architectural techniques provide valuable insights for contemporary designers seeking to build energy-efficient and comfortable structures in hot and dry climates (taher tolou del et al., 2022; moosavi, 2011).
archaeological methods used in qom plain studies
in archaeological studies of the qom plain, various techniques have been used to examine the history of human settlement and environmental interactions. modern methods such as remote sensing, geophysical analyses, and bioarchaeological studies have helped researchers gather accurate information about the cultural and natural landscapes of the biosphere-cultural regions (lambers, 2018).
remote sensing and gis analysis: remote sensing technology, including the use of satellite images and spatial data modeling, has provided effective tools for mapping archaeological sites (lasaponara & masini, 2013). these technologies can be employed in the qom plain to identify buried settlements and analyze environmental changes. high-resolution satellite data, such as landsat 8 and sentinel-2, have enabled the study of human settlement distribution in relation to climate changes (alexakis et al., 2012).
geophysical studies and non-invasive excavations: geophysical analyses, such as magnetometry, ground penetrating radar (gpr), and electrical resistivity, are non-invasive methods used to identify buried structures and settlement layers (horsley, 2015). in the qom plain, these methods can help uncover architectural remains and ancient water supply networks—these networks reflect the advanced knowledge of ancient societies in resource management (martorana et al., 2023).
bioarchaeological analyses: zooarchaeological studies in this region have provided important evidence about the diets, agriculture, and animal husbandry of past societies (khoshnevis, 2001). by combining paleoecological and zooarchaeological analyses, researchers can study the interactions between humans, plants, and animals, which shaped ecosystems and influenced human actions in the past (overton & taylor, 2018). overall, the combination of these modern methods enhances our understanding of the environmental and cultural history of the qom plain and contributes to better conservation of the region’s ancient heritage. in particular, the use of cutting-edge technologies, such as artificial intelligence in archaeological data analysis, will revolutionize the future of research in this field (argyrou & agapiou, 2022).
conclusion
the interaction between humans and the environment is a complex and multifaceted process that has continued throughout history. studying these interactions in environmental archaeology not only helps in understanding the past but can also provide solutions for managing natural resources and addressing contemporary environmental challenges. examining historical examples shows that successful societies were those that effectively adapted to environmental changes and developed sustainable strategies. environmental archaeology of the qom plain reflects the intricate interactions between humans and the environment over time. ancient societies, through the development of water management systems such as qanats and adopting strategies for adapting to climatic changes, were able to sustain themselves in harsh environmental conditions. these approaches not only helped the survival of these societies but also led to the development of ancient civilizations in the region. the results of this study show that interdisciplinary analyses in environmental archaeology enable the accurate reconstruction of past environments and understanding the impact of human activities on ecosystem changes. moreover, the findings emphasize that advanced methods, such as remote sensing and geological data analysis, play a key role in the sustainable management of natural resources and the protection of cultural heritage. overall, environmental archaeology, as an interdisciplinary approach, provides valuable insights into both the past and present and contributes to a better understanding of current environmental challenges.
acknowledgments
we would like to express our sincere gratitude to dr. siamak sarlak, whose generous support and assistance in the research of the first author’s doctoral dissertation were invaluable. he kindly provided his field findings for examination and analysis based on the objectives and research questions of the dissertation. this article serves as an introduction to the analysis of settlement patterns in the qom plain during the parthian and sassanian periods, taking into account the environmental conditions and potentials of the region, with the results to be gradually published. in this article, we have attempted to highlight the significance of this research.
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